Despite the array of programs developed since the 1960s to help the inner city, federal policy has largely failed to devise a strategy that both helps poor people and poor places. Urban renewal in the 1950s "revived" slum neighborhoods with bulldozers, transforming them into upscale apartment complexes. Likewise in the 1980s, shopping centers like Boston's Quincy Market and the Gallery in Philadelphia may have created a downtown retail renaissance -- but not an economic revival of poor neighborhoods for the people who live in them.